Mesopotamia

Ancient Mesopotamia was situated in the area of land that is defined by the two great rivers the Tigris and the Euphrates and that is contained within modern Iraq. Several important cultures arose there, their empires waxing and waning successively as well as overlapping in time. Among the most prominent were the Sumerian, the Akkadian, or Semitic, the Assyrian, and the Babylonian. The Sumerian civilization was established before 4000 BC and reached a high level of culture between 2700 and 2350 BC. In early times both sexes wore sheepskin skirts with the skin turned inside and the wool combed into decorative tufts. These wraparound skirts were pinned in place and extended from the waist to the knees or, for more important persons, to the ankles. The upper part of the torso was bare or clothed by another sheepskin cloaking the shoulders. From about 2500 BC a woven woolen fabric replaced the sheepskin, but the tufted effect was retained, either by sewing tufts onto the garment or by weaving loops into the fabric. Named kaunakes by the Greeks, this tufted fabric is shown in all the sculptures and mosaics of the period, as, for example, in the art from the excavations at Ur exhibited in the British Museum in London. At this time, also, long cloaks were worn, and materials for garments and head coverings included felted wool and leather. Men were generally clean-shaven. Both sexes seem to have often worn large wigs, as in ancient Egypt. Metalworking was of a high standard, as may be seen in the elaborate golden jewelry, which was encrusted with semiprecious stones and worn by both sexes: brooches, earrings, hair ornaments, and neck chains. A different style of dress is evident in Mesopotamian sculptures dating after about 2370 BC. Both men and women were clothed in a large piece of material—most commonly of wool, though later also of linen—draped around the body over a skirt. This garment, similar to a shawl, was characteristically edged with tassels or fringe. The draping varied, but, for men at least, the fabric was arranged so that the fullness was at the rear, leaving the right, or sword, arm free. This newer form of dress had originated from farther north and east and was adopted by the Semitic people of Akkad under Sargon (the dynasty founded by Sargon lasted from c. 2334 to c. 2193 BC) and by the revitalized Sumerian culture in the years 2110–2010 BC.
The dress worn in Mesopotamia by the Babylonians (2105–1240 BC) and the Assyrians (1200–540 BC) evolved into a more sophisticated version of Sumerian and Akkadian styles. Ample evidence of this more elaborate draped costume can be seen in the large relief sculptures of the age. There were two basic garments for both sexes: the tunic and the shawl, each cut from one piece of material. The knee- or ankle-length tunic had short sleeves and a round neckline. Over it were draped one or more shawls of differing proportions and sizes but all generally fringed or tasseled. Broad belts held the shawls in position. Wool was the most frequently used material, in bright or strong colours. Decoration was rich, in allover patterns or in borders, carried out in embroidery or by printing. Motifs were chiefly geometric. Women wore a short skirt as underwear, men a loincloth. Footwear for both sexes was made from fabric or soft leather in the form of sandals or boots.
Care of the coiffure was very important for men and women among both the Assyrians and the Babylonians . The hair was grown long and carefully curled and ringleted, with false hair added if needed. Perfumes, oils, and black dye were used on the hair. Men grew long, equally carefully tended curled beards. A band of metal or fabric encircled the brow, or a woolen, felt, or leather cap shaped like a fez was worn. The royal headdress resembled a pleated crown or a mitre and had dependent lappets at the rear. Jeweled ornamentation to the costume was rich and heavy and of high quality.

Ashurnasirpal II (left), king of Assyria, with an elaborately dressed beard, wearing sandals and a … Reproduced by courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum; photograph, John R. Freeman & Co. Ltd.

Ashurnasirpal II, relief from Nimrūd; in the British Museum By courtesy of the trustees of the British Museum

Ancient Egyptian Dress

Modern knowledge of ancient Egyptian dress derives from the ample evidence to be seen in the wealth of wall and sarcophagus paintings, in sculpture, and in ceramics; few actual garments have survived. Such illustrative material is depicted clearly and colourfully, but care must be taken in interpreting the designs too literally, partly because the art is frequently stylized but also because the artists were bound by tradition and their representation of dress often lagged far behind the actual changes of fashion.
The chief textile to have been preserved is linen, which has been found in graves dating to Neolithic times. Flax culture dates from very early times, and, in fact, the Egyptians believed that the gods were clothed in linen before they came to earth. Wool was more rarely employed, and sericulture had not yet extended as far west as Egypt. The technique of using mordants in the dyeing processes was slow to come to Egypt, so most garments were white. Colour was provided by jewelry in which semiprecious stones were widely incorporated. Among the most common types, the characteristic deep, decorative collar, worn by both sexes, was introduced early. These brightly hued bands were made of embroidered and beaded materials and set around the neck and shoulders either on bare skin or on top of a white cape or gown.
Skins of various animals were utilized. These were sometimes simply raw hides, which have survived only rarely, but the Egyptians became skilled at curing the skins to become leather by the tawing method—that is, by the use of alum or salt. Tawing yields a white, stiff leather that may be dyed various colours. Later they adopted the tanning method, employing oak galls for the purpose. Leather was used widely in dress for footwear, belts, and straps.During the 3,000 years of the Egyptian culture, costume changed comparatively little and very slowly. It remained a draped style of dress, the garments consisting of pieces of material held in place around the body by knots tied in the fabric and by waist belts, sashes, and collars. Little sewing was needed, being confined generally to side seams and, in later years, to armholes. This draped type of dress conformed to that of other civilizations in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern region such as Greece, Rome, and Mesopotamia but differed from the more Oriental styles of Persia, India, and China, where people wore more fitted, sewn garments based upon coats, tunics, and trousers. Ancient Egyptian dress for both sexes was confined to loincloths, a type of vest or shirt, capes, and robes.

Woman wearing sheathlike gown held up by shoulder straps, typical of Egyptian dress of the Old and … Borromeo/Art Resource, New York City.


Over the years the style of these garments slowly evolved and became more complex; a greater number were worn either in combination with or on top of one another. During the Old Kingdom (its capital at Memphis), which lasted until about 2130 BC, dress was simple. Men wore a short skirt tied at the waist or held there by a belt. As time passed, the skirt became pleated or gathered. Important people wore in addition a decorative coloured pendant hanging in front from the waist belt as well as a shoulder cape or corselet partly covering their bare torso. A sheathlike gown was typical of feminine attire.

This encased the body from the ankles to just below the breasts and was held up by decorative shoulder straps. Woolen cloaks were worn for warmth by men and women.Under the Middle Kingdom, based on Thebes, which prospered until about 1600 BC, the masculine skirt could be hip- or ankle-length. More material was now used, making the garment fuller, such fullness being concentrated in the centre front; and the pendants became more elaborate and ornamental. A cape might be draped around the shoulders and knotted on the chest. Late in the period a double skirt was introduced; alternatively, a triangular loincloth might be worn under a skirt.


Egyptian dress of the New Kingdom, 18th dynasty. King Tutankhamen wearing a double skirt, long and … Hirmer Fotoarchiv, Munchen


The most elaborate dress for both sexes was to be seen under the New Kingdom from about 1539 BC until the Egyptians were conquered successively by the Assyrians (671 BC), the Persians (525 BC), Alexander the Great (332 BC), and finally Rome (30 BC).


During these later years Egyptian dress was strongly influenced by that of the conquerors. New Kingdom dress was more complex than theretofore. The garments were of similar type but were composed of larger pieces of material; draping became more complicated and ornamentation richer. A robe or gown was now worn by important persons of both sexes. It consisted of a piece of fabric measuring 5 by 4 feet (1.5 by 1.2 metres) that was draped and held in place by pins and a waist belt, creating wide, elbow-length sleeves. There were many ways of draping the material, but with most methods all the pleats and folds seemed to be gathered around a single point at the waist. The cape, decorative collar, skirt, and pendant girdle also continued to be worn. Foci of bright colour were provided by the deep collar and pendant apron. Embroidered and carved ornamental motifs included especially the lotus flower, the papyrus bundle, birds in flight, and many geometric forms. Sacred emblems such as the scarab beetle and the asp were worn by priests and royalty.Children were dressed, as in most of the history of costume everywhere, as miniature versions of their parents, although they are often depicted wearing little at all—not surprising considering the climate of Egypt.

Servants also were almost naked, as were labourers in the fields, who are depicted clad only in a loincloth.Heavy wigs or a padding of false hair, worn by both men and women, are known from an early period. They served not only as an adornment but also to protect the wearer's head from the burning rays of the Sun, thus in a way acting as hats. Semicircular kerchiefs, tied by the corners at the nape of the neck under the hair, were sometimes worn to protect the wig on a dusty day. Wigs were dressed in many different ways, each characteristic of a given period; generally speaking, the hair became longer and the arrangement of curls and braids—set with beeswax—more complicated as time went on.The earliest records indicate that the Egyptians grew hair on their chins. They frizzed, dyed, or hennaed this beard and sometimes plaited it with interwoven gold thread. Later, a metal false beard, or postiche, which was a sign of sovereignty, was worn by royalty. This was held in place by a ribbon tied over the head and attached to a gold chin strap, a fashion existing from about 3000 to 1580 BC.Many people went barefoot, especially indoors, but people of rank are depicted outdoors in sandals made from palm leaves, papyrus, or leather.Cosmetics were extensively applied by both sexes, and considerable knowledge of their use is available because of the Egyptian custom of burying comforts and luxuries with the dead. Examples both of the cosmetics and of the means of making, applying, and keeping them may be seen in museums, especially in Cairo and London. The Egyptians applied rouge to their cheeks, red ointment to their lips, and henna to their nails and feet, and ladies traced the veins on their temples and breasts with blue paint, tipping their nipples with gold. The chief focus of makeup was the eye, where a green eye shadow (made from powdered malachite) and a black or gray eyeliner was applied; the latter substance, called kohl, was manufactured from, among other materials, powdered antimony, carbon, and oxide of copper.

Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome

Ancient Roman Dress



Roman dress at first glance appears to be identical to Greek dress in it's draperies and design. Closer inspection, however, reveals many important changes. First, the basic garments are sewn, not pinned, and close on both sides. Second, elaborate fabric decoration nearly disappears, and bold patterns on garments are nonexistent. Sandals, boots and shoes are common, virtually all men wear them, and many women. Jewelry becomes so simple in design and execution it looks crude, even without the comparison of the fine Greek work standing in contrast to it.





Roman Jewelry


Contrary to the views engendered by sensational fiction such as Bulwer Lytton's "Last Days of Pompeii" or the wondrous silliness of "Gladiator Movies", Romans were, by and large, the kind of practical, upright, uptight folks who believed in civil service, interstate highways, and customs duties. Their clothing included the Tunica (which is, as you have already guessed, a simple t-tunic), the Stola (the female version of the same thing), the Toga (a extra long half-circle wool mantle worn by male citizens) and the Palla, a large, long (8 yard) drape or scarf worn by women outdoors.



Sartorial decadence, such as it was, centered around women's hairstyles which changed fashion regularly and were often elaborately silly

Ancient Egypt, Greece and Rome

Ancient Greek Dress

Ancient Greek dress was more voluminous than that of the Egyptians, and was most often made of fine woolens, although it is thought that the Greeks also had regular access to linen, hemp cloth and silk. The primary garment of Ancient Greek clothing was the Chiton, an all-over body garment made from a large rectangle of cloth wrapped once around the body from right side to right side.

This garment was then pinned at the shoulders and tied at the waist or hips, and draped in hanging folds about the body. Young men generally wore short chitons, and older men and women longer

Older men also often are depicted wearing long draped mantles either alone or over a chiton . A smaller rectangle worn over one shoulder by travelers and young men was called a Chalmys .

Women's Chitons were draped in a variety of ways, and were also worn with mantles. Greek fabric was far more elaborate than the Egyptians, and included complex border designs both woven in and embroidered. Greek Jewelry, although less prominent than Egyptian jewelry, was exceedingly complex and finely made.

Like Egyptian dress, Greek clothing was centered in an aesthetic that idealized the human body, rather than attempting to conceal it's natural shape. The Greeks made many clothing decisions based on this aesthetic that were less than practical choices: Pinning garments closed instead of stitching, rarely wearing sandals or shoes despite a rocky landscape, draping garments around the body for warmth during cold instead of making garments with sleeves or trousers as their near neighbors the Phrygians (see at right) did. The Greeks definitely knew how to make sleeves, for their theatrical costumes had them, but for normal wear sleeves were judged less aesthetic than bare arms and so were not worn. Greek jewelry was also an object of much technical concentration, so much so that Western jewelry technique has only caught up to it since the Industrial Revolution.

Ancient Egyptian Dress

Clothing was not in any way a practical necessity in Ancient Egypt. Egypt (and most of the rest of North Africa) was not the mainly desert country it is today, subject to the temperature extremes that a dry climate engenders. Then it was a lush, food-producing country, subject to annual flooding, and a warm, humid climate. Clothing was therefore a luxury item of no great practical value. Slaves and the poor in surviving Ancient Egyptian art are therefore usually depicted in little more than loincloths. As people went up the social scale more clothing and jewelry was worn, but even then the drapery of the clothing is light and designed more to accentuate the shape of the body than conceal it. The most elaborate Egyptian clothing was worn by the Pharaohs and their queens as symbols of power. It is thought by some that royal Egyptians practiced body modification by wrapping the sculls of infants and altering the head shape to be more egg like than rounded in adulthood, others ascribe this to a natural genetic fluke in the royal family. Aristocratic Egyptians also often shaved their heads (and other body hair) and wore wigs instead of natural hair to formal occasions. Kohl eye makeup was worn by both sexes, as were perfumes and body oils. (see Egyptian Cosmetic Items) During banquets, guests wore small mounds of beeswax impregnated with perfumed oil on top of their wigs; these mounds would melt into the wigs with the heat of the room, releasing scent, during the course of the party. Jewelry was the dominant costume focus, worn by both sexes; numerous examples of Ancient Egyptian jewelry survive in museums (see Jewels of a Princess, Tutankhamun's Treasures , Necklace with Amulets, and Jewelry).

Clothing has been less fortunate in survival, but linen textile scraps remain to indicate that the mostly white pleated materials that are shown in Ancient drawings were probably fine linens. These pleated linen garments are usually depicted as straight pieces of cloth, pleated to give a body-hugging stretch, that are wrapped in a variety of ways and tied or tucked in front.

Clothing Worn by Egyptian

royalty

nobility

priesthood

soldiers

workers

The History of Tattooing

Tattooing is one of the oldest forms of art. As far back as we have traces of human activity, we have indications that they have been tattooed.
The first tattoos probably were created by accident. Someone had a small wound, and rubbed it with a hand that was dirty with soot and ashes from the fire. Once the wound had healed, they saw that a mark stayed permanent. In time they learned to use it consciously and artistically.
Tattooing did not develop some specific place on Earth and spread from there. All communities and all societies has practiced tattooing in some form.
To want to have a tattoo, is a primeval human instinct. But everybody does not dare, or hasn't realized their needs yet.

The Bronze Age:
Several Danish museums have needles from the Bronze Age (about 2000 - 500 B.C.), that is supposed to have been used for tattooing. There is no proof, but the circumstances surrounding the finds are convincing the scientists that they have been thus used.

This is tattoo needles in the Vesthimmerland's Museum in Aars, Denmark.

A bronze age tattoo needle in Bornholm's Museum in Rønne, Denmark.

Inuit

All the people all around the Arctic has been tattooed.
This is a small figure carved out of a walrus tusk. It is about 2000 years old, and is enhanced with traditional tattoo designs.
It was very normal, especially for the women, to get tattooed lines down their chin. The lines around the eyes are also very normal.

In 1654 4 Eskimos were kidnapped from Nuuk and taken to Bergen in Norway where their portraits were painted. Later they were taken to Copenhagen,
and today this painting is one of the treasures in the National Museum in Copenhagen. This is the oldest surviving portrait of Inuit, and it is very obvious that both women were tattooed.

America

In the mythology around the Cowboys and Indians in the times of "The Wild West", the Indians' war paint plays an important role. There is no doubt that the Indians also used body paint, but I am also pretty sure that some of this war "paint" were actually tattoos.

Africa

In Africa, where people have dark skin, it is difficult to make a colourtattoo, like we know them. But they want to be tattooed anyway, so they have developed another technique - they make scarifications. This is not really tattooing, but it is related to tattooing, so I will treat them here anyway. I call it "tattooing for the blind", because they can be felt like Braille lettering.
Normally scarifications are made by lifting the skin a little, and making a cut with a knife or some other sharp thing. In the wound that occurs, is rubbed special sands or ashes that is known to make beautifully raised scars.

Europe

The tradition that we know best in Europe, is the so called "Sailor Tattoo". Motives like: Faith-hope-and-love, hearts, roses, sailor's grave, etc.

But tattooing in Europe dates much further back. Actually the oldest preserved human, a man who was found on the border between Austria and Italy - the Iceman - was tattooed (you can read a bit more about him under Ancient Times). That is of course no coincidence. People have always been tattooed in Europe.
It was rather normal for the crusaders in the middle ages to get a tattoo as a reminder of the events they participated in.The Picts in England were probably called just that because they were tattooed.
Tattooing in Europe has always been much more than the sailor tattoo. It is very likely that the Vikings were tattooed. At around year 1100 the Arab Ibn Fadlan described a meeting with some Vikings. He thought them very rude, dirty - and covered with pictures.

World’s Oldest Hats Discovered?

'Venus Wear' Reveals 27,000-Year-Old Fashion
"Venus Wear" may sound like the latest Fifth Avenue fashion trend. In scientific parlance, however, it refers to clothing and hats that were made approximately 27,000 years ago.
Until recently, it was thought that humans wrapped simple animal skins around themselves at least 50,000 years ago, with woven clothes and textiles invented only around 8,000 B.C.
Now, an anthropologist is theorizing that clothes production was in full swing much earlier, and that sophisticated weaving techniques had already been developed by the time the Venus Wear collection made its debut.
Clues For Venus Vogue
Ninety 28,000-year-old clay fragments found in the Czech Republic in the late 1990s provided the first set of clues. Impressions show that interlaced fibers originally were pressed onto the clay surfaces. Patterns formed by these impressions hint that cord and net materials used to rest on the clay.
The woven objects themselves are highly perishable and would have biodegraded thousands of years ago. However, the intriguing clues suggested what ancient clothing and hats looked like, and how they were made.
Olga Soffer, professor of anthropology at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and a former New York fashion consultant, immediately recognized the possibilities.
Hat, Not Hairdo
Recalling that she’d seen similar patterns before in France and other European countries, Soffer and her colleagues next analyzed Venus figurines, enigmatic female statuettes found throughout Russia and Europe. They date from approximately 27,000 to 22,000 B.C.
Archaeologists have known about the Venus figures for at least a century, but always thought surface impressions on the doll-like objects were just decoration. The clay impressions were said to be elaborate, prehistoric hairdos.
Not so, according to Soffer, who believes the "hairdos" really used to be woven hats, resembling snoods or upside down salad bowls, that have since worn away.
The figures weren’t just wearing hats, either.
"Our recent study of 'Venus Wear' has demonstrated that a significant number of these figurines are depicted dressed in headwear, belts, bandeaux and bracelets," explains Soffer, whose findings will be published in an upcoming issue of the journal Current Anthropology.
The impressions further suggest that the bandeaux were quite modern looking, and resembled either a strapless bikini top or a bra.
More Evidence
Soffer and her team then discovered that other objects from the same period bore impressed marks. One such object, a piece of flint from Badegoule, France, even has a burned fragment of textile fabric adhered to it.
In addition, the anthropologists identified possible weaving tools that previously were attributed to other crafts or were called "decorative art objects." Soffer instead thinks certain small needles, net spacers and forks, as well as items similar to spindle whorls and loom weights, were likely weaving and looping equipment.
Pollen at sites from Portugal to Russia, where many of the tools were excavated, also indicate weavers would have had plenty of good raw material to work with. Soffer says, "They [the pollen] include milkweed and nettle, as well as alder and yew, all of which are ethnographically used to make baskets and cordage."
Early Complex Weaving
Marijke Kerkhoven, a curator at The Museum For Textiles in Toronto, Ontario, was not surprised by the findings. Kerkhoven herself recently studied prehistoric weaving for an exhibit entitled "Mothers Of Invention: 25 Millennia Of Innovation," that will open May 31 at the textile museum.
"Twenty-seven thousand years ago, weaving appeared to have been quite complex," says Kerkhoven. "We see evidence of sophisticated weaving stripes, checks, gauze and brocade."
Weaving even may have evolved thousands of years earlier, based upon the complexity of the Venus hat and clothing impressions and the fact that these techniques already had become widespread during the Venus period.
Kerkhoven says, "The technique probably originated in the Caucasus, and gradually spread throughout Europe and other regions."
It is theorized that people from the Caucasus, a mountain range located between the Black and Caspian Seas, traveled East and West, bringing sheep and wool-crafting skills, like weaving, with them.
Early Catalogs
"Venus Wear" is still somewhat of a mystery, as researchers aren’t sure whom the Venuses depicted and what the statuettes were used for. A number of theories have been proposed.
One is that the figures may have been involved in rituals. "Facial features usually are not present on the figures, only a line sometimes exists, or impressions where a veil must have once hung," says Kerkhoven. The lack of personalization and the exaggerated sexual parts on many of the statuettes suggest they might have been deities, or held some function in fertility rituals.
Jeff Illingworth, senior analyst and conservator at the Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute in Erie, Pa., worked with Soffer on the Venus project. He says the figurines might have been "the prehistoric equivalent of the Sears and Roebuck catalogue."
He explains that craftswomen may have distributed the figurines to advertise available hats and clothing. While this idea may seem farfetched, Illingworth points out that an enormous amount of effort was spent on making textiles for the figures, but little time appears to have been devoted to making the figurines themselves. In addition to the lack of facial features, the statuettes generally have no identifiable arms or legs.
Illingworth says, "Whoever made the Venus figures wanted us to notice the intricate details on the clothing."

This Paleolithic figurine, the Venus of Brassempouy, bears evidence not of an elaborate hairstyle, but of intricate textiles in the form of a cap, say some anthropologists. The figurine is about 26,000 years old. (Steve Holland/University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

The famous Venus of Willendorf was found in Austria. (Steve Holland/University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)